La identidad contemporánea de los vascos en la diáspora

COMPARING THE BASQUE DIASPORA:

Ethnonationalism, transnationalism and identity maintenance in Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Peru, the United States of America, and Uruguay

Thesis submitted in partial requirement for Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

The London School of Economics and Political Science
University of London
2000

Abstract

Through a comparison of Basque diaspora populations in six countries, this thesis describes and analyzes ethnicity maintenance, transnational consciousness, and ethnonational tendencies of self-defining Basques. I argue that despite geographical and generational differences, the core elements of Basque identity are defined in a constant manner, and ethnic institutions have developed according to similar patterns. I categorize these populations as diaspora utilizing Cohen's definition, and give examples of their (1) traumatic dispersal from an original homeland; (2) expansion from the homeland in pursuit of colonial ambitions, trade, or work; (3) shared myth and collective memory of their homeland; (4) idealization of their homeland; (5) return movement; (6) sustained strong ethnic group consciousness; (7) sense of solidarity with co-ethnic members in other countries; and (8) distinctive and enriched lives in tolerant host countries.

I suggest chain migration and consistent interaction with the homeland have strengthened transnational ties and diasporic consciousness. Contemporary relations between Basque diaspora communities and the Basque Government have fomented and reinvigorated ethnicity maintenance for many from the forty-three Basque associations represented. Tajfel's positive social identity theory aids in partially explaining ethnic identity preservation in Uruguay, Argentina and some areas of the United States, though respondents in Australia, Peru, and Belgium tend to employ primordialist vocabulary to interpret their persistent ethnonationalism. While homeland definitions of "Basqueness" have progressed to a more civic and inclusive nationalism, diaspora definitions tend to follow the traditional conservativism of Sabino Arana and ancestry, language, and religion.

A multimethod approach creates original quantitative and qualitative data from 832 written anonymous questionnaires and 348 personal interviews. SPSS empirical data analysis facilitated cross-tabulations and comparisons.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ..........................................................	2
Abstract ........................................................................	4
Table of Contents ...........................................................	5
List of Tables .................................................................	8
List of Figures ................................................................	9
List of Figures ................................................................	10
Glossary of Terms ..........................................................	11

Chapter One: Introduction .............................................	13
Rationale for the Study .....................................................	15
Plan of the Thesis ............................................................	17
Choosing the Right Words ................................................	19
Research Methodology: Survey Questionnaires and Detailed Interviews ........................................................................	20

Chapter Two: Theories of Ethnicity, Ethnic Identity Persistence, and Diaspora ............................................	25
A. Theories of Ethnic Identity and Ethnicity ........................	26
1.Primordialism ................................................	26
2. Circumstantialist, Mobilizationist, and Instrumentalist Approaches to Ethnicity ..............	28
B. Ethnic Identity Persistence ..........................................	30
1. Assimilation, Acculturation, and Symbolic Ethnicity ..........................................................	30
2. Social Identity Theory ....................................	34
C. Definitions, Elements, and Theories of Diaspora .............	36
1. Diaspora? Immigrant Community? Political and Economic Exiles? ............................................	36
2. Transnationalism and Globalization ................	39
3. Our Identity is at Once Plural and Partial ........	41
4. The Politicization of the Basque Diaspora .......	44
D. Conclusions ................................................................	45

Chapter Three: Basque Country History, Basque Nationalism Development, and Contemporary Homeland Identity .............................................................................	47
A. The Golden Age of the Basques ......................................	47
1. The Basques ...................................................	47
2. The Emergence of Spain ..................................	53
3. Iparralde and Hegoalde ....................................	59
4. The Fueros: A Powerful Source of Separate Identity ..............................................................	61
B. The Development of Basque Nationalism ..........................	62
1. The Foundations of Basque Ethnonationalism ....	63
2. Sabino Arana y Goiri and Traditional Basque Nationalism ........................................................	66
3. Building Nationalist Coalitions ...........................	71
C. Basque Nationalism and Ethnic Identity in the Franco Years ................................................................................	72
1. The Spanish Civil War: Burning Memories .........	73
2. Spanish Nation-building a la Franco ..................	75
3. Basque Nationalist Underground Resistance .....	77
4. Euskadi ta Askatasuna ...................................	79
5. A Shift to Armed Struggle .................................	82
D. Contemporary Basque Identity in Euskal Herria ................	86
E. Conclusions ..................................................................	89

Chapter Four: The Formation of the Basque Diaspora	91
A. The First Diaspora: Collaborators in Spanish Imperialism	92
1. Ethnic Group Awareness in the New World Context ........................................................	92
2. Basque Elite Emigration .............................	93
3. Basque Economic Dominance in the Spanish Colonies ..........................................	96
B. The Aftermath of War Pushes and Pioneerism Pulls Basque Migration .........................................................	99
1. Circumstances and Incentives Pulling Basques Toward the Americas .......................	103
2. Primogeniture Inheritance in Euskal Herria and the Revival of Carlism ...............................	106
3. Diaspora Nationalism, Homeland Economic Hardship, and United States Opportunities .......	107
C. Francoism, Political Exiles, and New Destinations ......	110
1. Diaspora Aid to the Homeland .....................	111
2. Franco Political Repression and the Basque Respons .......................................................	113
3. Diaspora Reactions to Homeland Violence	116
D. Conclusions .............................................................	119

Chapter Five: Ethnonationalism and Political Attitudes in the Diaspora ............................................	122
A. Basque Diaspora Nationalism as Historically both Political and Ethnic .......................................................	123
1. Non-Political and Non-Partisan? Not Exactly	124
2. Current Homeland Partisan Representation in the Diaspora .................................................	133
B. Comparing Respondents Personal Attitudes Towards Politics ........................................................................	140
1. Political Participation .................................	140
2. Diaspora Hopes for the Homeland's Future ...	144
C. Basqueness as Defined in the Diaspora ..............	147
1. Aranist and Traditional Basqueness .............	147
2. The Development of Diasporic Consciousness and Specific Diasporic Basque Identity .............	151
D. Conclusions .............................................................	156

Chapter Six: Basque Ethnicity Affirmation and Maintenance ..............................................................	159
A. Social, Educational, and Cultural Functions of the Basque Institutions .......................................................	160
1. Cultural Adaptation ....................................	161
2. Ethnomusicology: Composing a Diaspora Identity .........................................................	166
3. Preservation of Traditions and Cultural .........	168
B. Language Maintenance .............................................	172
C. Homeland Connections .............................................	176
1. Economic and Personal ties to Euskal Herria	176
2. Institutional Connections Among Basques ...	177
D. Banal Nationalism and Daily Ethnic Socialization ........	179
1. Home Decoration .......................................	179
2 Personal Adornment ...................................	181
E. Haizpak: Sister to Sister ...........................................	182
1. Migration Experiences ................................	183F.
The Age of Globalization is also the Age of Ethnic Identity Resurgence .................................................................	187
1. Basque Diasporic Identity ...........................	187
2. www.identity.org ........................................	189
3. Diaspora Identity = Positive Social Identity ...	190
G. Conclusions ............................................................	193

Chapter Seven: Basque Government-Diaspora Relations ....................................................................	195
A. Law of Relations with the Basque Communities in the Exterior: Ley 8/1994 ......................................................	197
1. Reversing Trends ........................................	197
2. Benefits to Basque Organizations and Centers	200
3. Individual Rights and Benefits ......................	202
B. Policy Formation ......................................................	204
1. The Advisory Council for Relations with the Basque Communities .....................................	206
2. Legal Framework of Basque Government Foreign Policy ...............................................	208
C. First World Congress of Basque Collectivities ..............	211
1. Four Year Plan of Institutional Action ...........	212
2. Future Possibilities .....................................	213
3. Congress of American Basque Centers, Buenos Aires, 1997 ........................................	214
D. The Impact of the Media ............................................	215
1. Downloading Identity ...................................	215
2. Euskal Etxeak: The Intra-Diaspora Journal ...	217
E. Euskadi's Commitment to the Diaspora ......................	218
1. Basque Government Financial Support for the Diaspora .......................................................	218
2. Fundaciones, Institutos, and Confusion ........	223
3. Gaztemundu: Preparing Diaspora Youth for Future Leadership ..........................................	226
F. Diaspora Political Commitment to Euskadi ..................	227
1. Voting .......................................................	227
G. Conclusions .............................................................	229

Chapter Eight: Amaia: An Interconnected Disconnectedness .......................................................	232
A. Belonging Here and There: Expressions from the Basque Diaspora ...........................................................	232
B. Categorizing the Basque Communities as a Diaspora ...	234
C. Globalization: Shrinking World-Expanding Diaspora ......	237
D. Choosing the Basque Option ......................................	239
E. If it Ain't Broke, Don't Fix It: Maintaining a Non-Politicized Diaspora .......................................................	242
F. Future Study: The Trajectory of Basque Diaspora Studies .........................................................................	246

Appendix .....................................................................	249
A. English Sample Questionnaire / Spanish Sample Questionnaire ................................................................	250
B. Sample Interview Questions ........................................	266
C. Diskette of SPSS Data

Bibliography of Sources ..............................................	268
Books and Periodicals ....................................	268
Government Publications .................................	294
Unpublished Papers and Pamphlets .................	295
Newsletters ....................................................	295
Expert Interviews ............................................	296
Personal Interviewees in each country ..............	298

Gloria Totoricagüena Egurrola, Boise, Idaho EEUU-Ph.D. London School of Economics and Political Science
totoricaguena@yahoo.com

Euskonews & Media 119.zbk (2001 / 4 / 20-27)